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A Pesticide Information Project of Cooperative Extension Offices of Cornell University, Michigan State University, Oregon State University, and University of California at Davis. Major support and funding was provided by the USDA/Extension Service/National Agricultural Pesticide Impact Assessment Program.
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An ecosystem follows a certain sequence of processes and events through the days, seasons, and years. The processes include not only the birth, growth, reproduction, and death of biota in that particular ecosystem, but also the interactions between species and physical characteristics of the geological environment. From these processes the ecosystem gains a recognizable structure and function, and matter and energy are cycled and flow through the system. Over time, better adapted species come to dominate; entirely new species may change, perhaps in a new or altered ecosystem.
The next, more complex, level of organization is the community. Communities are made up of different populations of interacting plants, animals, and microorganisms also within some defined geographic area. Different populations within a community interact more among themselves than with populations of the same species in other communities, therefore, there are often genetic differences between members of two different communities. The populations in a community have evolved together, so that members of that community provide resources (nutrition, shelter) for each other.
The next level of organization is the ecosystem. An ecosystem consist of different communities of organisms associated within a physically defined space. For example, a forest ecosystem consists of animal and plant communities in the soil, forest floor, and forest canopy, along the stream bank and bottom, and in the stream. A stream bottom community, for example, will have various fungi and bacteria living on dead leaves and animal wastes, protozoans and microscopic invertebrates feeding on these microbes, and larger invertebrates (worms, crayfish) and vertebrates (turtles, catfish). Each community functions somewhat separately, but are also linked to the others by the forest, rainfall, and other interactions. For example, the stream community is heavily dependent upon leaves produced in the surrounding trees falling into the stream, feeding the microbes and other invertebrates. For another example, the rainfall and groundwater flow in a surrounding forest community greatly affects the amount and quality of water entering the stream or lake system.
Terrestrial ecosystems can be grouped into units of similar nature, termed biomes (such as a "deciduous forest," "grassland," "coniferous forest," etc.), or into a geographic unit, termed landscapes, containing several different types of ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems are commonly categorized on the basis of whether the water is moving (streams, river basins) or still (ponds, lakes, large lakes) and whether the water is fresh, salty (oceans), or brackish (estuaries). Landscapes and biomes (and large lakes, river basins, and oceans) are subject to global threats of pollution (acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion, air pollution, the greenhouse effect) and human activities (soil erosion, deforestation).
On the other hand, toxic pollutants and other non-natural phenomena can overwhelm the natural stability of an ecosystem and result in irreversible changes and serious losses, as illustrated by the following examples:
Each of these pollutant-caused losses has altered ecosystem processes and components and thus affected aesthetic and commercial value of an ecosystem.
Usually, adverse ecological effects take place over long period of time or even at some distance from the point of release of a chemical. For example, DDT, though banned for use in the United States for over twenty years, is still entering the Great Lakes ecosystem through rainfall and dust from sources half way around the world. The long-term effects and overall impacts of new and existing chemicals on ecosystems can only be partially evaluated by current laboratory testing procedures. Nevertheless, through field studies and careful monitoring of chemical use and biological outcome, it is possible to evaluate the short-term and long-term effects of pesticides and other chemicals.
Pollutants may adversely affect communities by disrupting their normal structure and delicate interdependencies. The structure of a community includes its physical system, usually created by the plant life and geological processes, as well as the relationships between its populations of biota.
For example, a pollutant may eliminate a species essential to the functioning of the entire community; it may promote the dominance of undesirable species (weeds, trash fish); or it may simply decrease the numbers and variety of species present in the community. It may also disrupt the dynamics of the food webs in the community by breaking existing dietary linkages between species. Most of these adverse effects in communities can be measured through changes in productivity in the ecosystem. Under natural stresses (for example, unusual temperature and moisture conditions), the community may be unable to tolerate effects of a chemical otherwise causing no harm.
An important facet of biological communities is the number and intensity of interactions between species. These interactions make the community greater than simply the sum of its parts. The community is stronger than its populations, and the ecosystem is more stable than its communities. A seriously altered interaction may adversely affect all the species dependent on it. Even so, some ecosystem properties or functions (such as nutrient dynamics) can be altered by chemicals without apparent effects on populations or communities. Thus, an important part of research in ecological effects is concerned with the relative sensitivity of ecosystems, communities, and populations to chemicals and to physical stresses.
Consider the effects of spraying an orchard with an insecticide when bees and other beneficial insects may be present and vulnerable to the toxicant. This practice is both economically and ecologically unsound, since it would deprive all plants in the area of pollinators and disrupt control of plant pests by their natural enemies. Advanced agricultural practices, such as integrated pest management (IPM), avoid these adverse effects through appropriate timing and selection of sprays in conjunction with non-chemical approaches to insect control.
Effects of chemicals on communities can be measured in laboratory model ecosystem (microcosm) studies, in intermediate sized systems (mesocosms, engineered field systems, open-top plant chambers, field pens), and in full field trials. Thus, data gathered about effects of chemicals on processes and species can be evaluated in various complex situations that reflect the real world.
Generally, the effects observed in these toxicity tests include reduced rates of survival or increased death rates; reduced growth and altered development; reduced reproductive capabilities, including birth defects; changes in body systems, including behavior; and genetic changes. Any of these effects can influence the ability of species to adapt and respond to other environmental stresses and community interactions.
Environmental toxicology studies performed on species in the laboratory provide the basis for much of the current regulation of pollutants and have allowed major improvements in environmental quality. However, these tests yield only a few clues to effects on more complex systems. Long-term studies and monitoring of ecological effects of new and existing chemicals released into the environment are needed in order to create understanding of potential adverse ecological effects and their consequences.
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